english 3
Silent Words
There are a lot of silent letters in English. This is because although the pronunciation of some words has changed over the last two or three hundred years the spelling has stayed the same.
There aren't many hard and fast rules, it's more a matter of learning which letters are silent in certain combinations of letters. Here are some of the most common silent letters.
In the following examples, all silent letters are given in brackets.
Silent 'b'
The 'b' is silent in the combination 'mb' at the end of a word.
For example: bom(b), clim(b), com(b), crum(b), lam(b), lim(b), plum(b)er, num(b), thum(b)
The 'b' is silent in the combination 'bt'.
For example: de(b)t, dou(b)t, su(b)tle
But not in some words, e.g. obtain, unobtrusive
· The plum(b)er's thum(b) got cau(gh)t in his com(b) as he clim(b)ed the ladder.
Silent 'd'
The 'd' is silent in the combination 'dg'.
For example: ba(d)ge, e(d)ge, han(d)kerchief, he(d)ge, han(d)some, ple(d)ge, san(d)wich we(d)ge We(d)nesday
· I have san(d)wiches every We(d)nesday and ir(o)n my wais(t)coats in the ev(e)ning.
Silent ‘e’
For Example: ev(e)ry, ev(e)ning, diff(e)rent, sev(e)ral, int(e)resting, veg(e)table, lit(e)rature, temp(e)rature, p(e)rhaps
· He described sev(e)ral diff(e)rent veg(e)tables on his plate.
· I didn't find that very int(e)resting, It certainly wasn't lit(e)rature.
· P(e)rhaps his body temp(e)rature was too hi(gh).
Silent ‘g’
For Example: si(g)n, forei(g)n, champa(g)ne
· There was no si(g)n of the French champa(g)ne.
Silent ‘gh’
The ‘gh’ becomes silent when it is followed by ‘t’
hi(gh), ri(gh)t, ni(gh)t, mi(gh)t, si(gh)t brou(gh)t, thou(gh)t, cau(gh)t, ou(gh)t, dau(gh)ter wei(gh), nei(gh)bour, strai(gh)t
· The hi(gh) and mi(gh)ty were not in si(gh)t that night.
· I cau(gh)t some sa(l)mon and brou(gh)t them strai(gh)t to my dau(gh)ter.
· My nei(gh)bour asked me how much I wei(gh)ed.
Silent ‘h’
Generally the ‘h’ is silent when there is a vowel next to it.
For Example: (h)onest, (h)our, (h)onour, (h)eir
· "I'll be back in an (h)our," said the (h)eiress. But it was not an (h)onest or an (h)onourable ans(w)er.
The 'h' is silent at the end of word when it follows a vowel.
For example: cheeta(h) Sara(h) messia(h) savana(h)
The 'h' is silent between two vowels.
For example: anni(h)ilate ve(h)ement ve(h)icle
The 'h' is silent after the letter 'r'.
For example: r(h)yme r(h)ubarb r(h)ythm
The 'h' is silent after the letters 'ex'
For example: ex(h)austing, ex(h)ibition, ex(h)ort
But not in some words, e.g. exhale, exhume
Silent 'k'
The 'k' is silent in the combination 'kn'.
For example: (k)nack (k)nee (k)new (k)nickers (k)nife (k)night (k)nitting (k)nob (k)nock (k)not (k)now (k)nuckle
· Did you know she has a (k)nife in her (k)nickers which could damage your (k)nuckles or your (k)nees?
Silent ‘l’
For Example: sa(l)mon, ca(l)m, wou(l)d, cou(l)d, shou(l)d, wa(l)k, ta(l)k, ha(l)f
· He cou(l)d wa(l)k for ha(l)f a mile and ta(l)k ca(l)mly about sa(l)monella poisoning for an (h)our and a half.
Silent 'n'
The 'n' is silent in the combination 'mn' at the end of a word.
For example: Autum(n) dam(n) gover(n)ment hym(n) colum(n) condem(n) solem(n)
· He (w)rote a dam(n)ing report about the gover(n)ment's handling of the sa(l)monella crisis.
Silent 'p'
The 'p' is silent in the combination 'ps' at the beginning of a word.
For example: (p)neumatic (p)neumonia (p)salm (p)syche (p)sychiatry (p)sychology (p)sychotherapy
· The (p)sychiatrist recommended (p)sychotherapy.
cu(p)board
· "There's no med(i)cine in your cu(p)board will help you," she said. "Save that for (p)neumonia."
Silent ‘s’
For Example: i(s)land, i(s)les
· Ireland is an i(s)and. The British I(s)les are not part of Ireland.
Silent ‘t’
‘t’ becomes silent in the combination of ‘ten’
For Example: lis(t)en, fas(t)en, of(t)en,
· Fas(t)en you sea(t) belts.
whis(t)le, cas(t)le, Chris(t)mas
· How of(t)en do I have to say that? I can see you're not lis(t)ening when you're whis(t)ling.
Silent ‘w’
ans(w)er, (w)rite, (w)rong, (w)ring, (w)rinkle, (w)rist, (w)retched, (w)restler
· I feel (w)retched," said the (w)restler.
· "My (w)rist is all (w)rinkled. I can't (w)rite and who wou(l)d want to wrest(l)e with me now?"
“Shan” Phonetically
Action Addition Association Auction
Caution Competition Composition Consultation Conversation Division Examination Foundation Function Globalization
Intention Intervention Junction Multiplication Nutrition
Plantation Position Precaution Quotation
Relation Repetition Rotation Station Subtraction
Vacation Verification Vocation
Division Expression Intermission Occasion Permission Possession Supervision Television Transmission Vision
Beautician Electrician Magician Musician Physician Technician
PUNCTUATIONS
Sentences start with a Capital, So as to make our sentences better.
We use a full stop to mark the end. It closes every sentence penned.
The comma is for short pauses and breaks, And also for lists the writer makes.
Dashes – like these – are for thoughts by the way.
They give extra information (so do brackets, we may say).
These two dots are a colon: colons pause to compare.
They also do this: list, explain and prepare.
The semicolon makes a break; it’s followed by a clause.
It does the work of words that link; it’s also a short pause.
An apostrophe shows the owner of anyone’s thing,
and it’s also useful for shortenings.
I’m so glad! He’s so mad! We’re having such a lark!
To show strong feelings use an exclamation mark!
A question mark follows who? Whom? Whose?
Which? What? When? Where? Why and How
Do you? Can I? Shall we? Give us your answer now!
‘Quotation marks’ enclose what is said, Which is why they’re sometimes called ‘Speech marks’ instead.
Apostrophe, Inverted comma / Single Quotation mark ‘
Quotations / Double quotes / Double inverted commas “
Astrisk *
Semicolon ;
Colon :
Slash / Oblique / Backward Slash /
Forward slash \
Comma ,
Full stop / period .
Dash -
Hyphen _
Ellipses …
Question / Interrogation ?
Exclamation !
Parentheses ( )
Flower brackets { }
Square Brackets [ ]
COMMA
1. In a Series – Three or more items connected by a coordinating conjunction words Jones, Smith, and Jackson presented an intriguing report.
Phrases The novel is available in print, on audio tape, and on video cassette
Clauses The lawyer argued that the weather was bad, that the car had poor brakes, and that the other driver was speeding.
Incorrect: Jones, and Smith presented an intriguing report.
Jones, and Smith, and Jackson presented an intriguing report.
Confusing: He appealed to the administrators, the deans and the advisors.
The smooth gray of the beech stem, the silky texture of the birch and the rugged pine capture the eye immediately.
2. Between Coordinate Adjectives – Equal adjectives with no coordinating conjunction
Incorrect: She bought a red, fuzzy coat. (Tests work: red and fuzzy / fuzzy, red)
Incorrect: The professor gave a hard, final examination. (Tests do not work: hard and final / final, hard)
Incorrect: This is a long, short story. (Tests do not work: long and short / short, long)
3. Before FANBOYS between Independent Clauses in Compound Sentences
The war lasted for two years, but very few people supported it.
Incorrect: The war lasted for two years, but never gathered much support.
The war lasted for two years but, very few people supported it.
Acceptable: The shooting stopped and peace followed. (very short clauses – no comma needed)
4. Nonessential Adjective Clauses / Nonessential participial phrases
Mary Jones, who spoke at the meeting today, opposed the merger.
Mary Jones, speaking at the meeting today, opposed the merger.
Mary Jones, frightened by a mouse, bought a cat.
Incorrect: The woman, who spoke at the meeting today, opposed the merger.
The woman, speaking at the meeting today, opposed the merger.
The woman, frightened by a mouse, bought a cat.
5. Introductory Elements
A Long prepositional phrase or succession of prepositional phrases
In the solitude of that snowy December night, we became good friends.
At the end of the road on the west side of the train station, an elderly couple sold produce each summer.
Optional: On that night (,) we became friends.
In December (,) we became friends.
B. Participial phrases
Speaking at the meeting today, the woman opposed the merger.
Stretching, the cat slowly opened her eyes.
Terrified, the mouse ran behind the cupboard.
C Gerunds as objects of prepositions
Upon entering the room, the police heard a gun shot.
Incorrect: Entering the room, was dangerous. (Gerund as subject, not object of preposition)
D Adverbial infinitives
To buy that car, you must pay a $500.00 deposit.
(Test: In order to buy that car, you must pay . . .)
Incorrect: You must pay a $500.00 deposit, to buy that car.
(Adverbial infinitive at end of sentence – no comma)
To buy that car, is my dream. (Test won't work – infinitive is nominal)
E. Adverbial clauses
When he reached the stoplight, Jones turned left.
Incorrect: Jones turned left, when he reached the stoplight. (adverbial clause is at end of sentence – no comma)
F Mild interjections (well, yes, no, why, etc.)
No, she never returned the car.
Well, I am not sure how I feel about that.
6. To separate Interrupters
A. Parenthetical expressions and transitions (in my opinion, unfortunately, moreover, of course, unfortunately, as a matter of fact, indeed, for example, etc.)
The meeting was, in my opinion, very productive.
The committee members, however, lacked initiative.
However, the committee members lacked initiative.
B. Appositives (renamers)
Professor Jones, my history instructor, dismissed the class early.
Test: switch positions - My history instructor, Professor Jones, dismissed the class.
Incorrect: My daughter, Jane, is taller than her sisters. (Appositive is essential since there is more than one daughter)
C Direct Address
Joe, please hand me the newspaper.
You will see, ladies and gentlemen, that I have nothing up my sleeve.
7. Nonessential Examples
Introduced by such as, especially, particularly
Jones likes to read about dogs, especially Welsh Corgis, in his spare time.
Service professions, such as social work and teaching, offer many non-monetary rewards.
Incorrect: Dogs, such as Welsh Corgis, are expensive. (Essential)
8. Expressions of Contrast
I want chocolate, not vanilla.
His wife, not his brother, needs the money more.
9. Dates and Addresses
The house at 100 West 67th Street, Baltimore, MD 21210, was sold today.
My son was born on January 5, 1976, in Chicago, Illinois.
Incorrect: She lives at 100 West 67th Street, in Baltimore, Maryland.
It was on January 5, that my son was born.
10. Before Confirmatory Questions
You will be at the party, won't you?
11. Name followed by Jr., Sr., Ph.D., M.D.
Mary Jones, Ph.D., will lecture on insect fragmentation today at 4 p.m.
12. To clarify otherwise Misreadable Word Groups
· It is unfortunate, to be sure.
· Inside, the cat was purring.
· The question to ask yourself is, is this trip necessary?
· If you cook, Jones will wash the dishes.
· Underneath, the papers were scorched.
· When Smith had finished, the potatoes and corn were all gone, and left untouched were the beets and carrots.
· A few weeks before, I had seen him in a medieval play.
Use a SEMICOLON
1. Between independent clauses not joined by coordinating conjunctions
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Example He promised to reform; a few days later he forgot everything.
2. Between independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb
Example He promised to reform; however, a few days later he forgot everything.
3. Between items in a series containing internal punctuation
Example Captain Zero, a television star; Harriet Smith, who writes fiction; and Mel Stevens, a world-famous psychiatrist, meet for an hour every Thursday to discuss the geopolitical situation.
4. Between independent clauses containing internal punctuation – even when the clauses are joined by coordinating conjunctions.
Example To engender self-confidence, we must help others; but to procure love, we must please them.
Use a COLON
1. Before formally introducing a list (*An independent clause must precede the colon.)
Examples
· I ordered the following supplies: potatoes, sugar, flour, eggs, and coffee.
· I ordered these supplies: potatoes, sugar, flour, eggs, and coffee.
· Theories which try to explain the secrets of fire walking fall into three categories: physical, psychological, and religious.
Incorrect I ordered: potatoes, sugar, flour, eggs, and coffee.
On a long ocean voyage be sure to take along: plenty of books, a deck of cards, a chess set, and a warm blanket.
2. Between two independent clauses when the second explains or expands the first
Examples The leaders made the final decision: the (The) earthquake victims would receive food and medical supplies.
The sign was all too clear: "Do not swim in this area."
Here is our honest opinion: we (We) think you are a genius.
3. Before a formal appositive (*An independent clause must precede the colon)
Example The reaction of the audience signified one overwhelming feeling: anger.
Incorrect The reaction of the audience signified: anger.
4. Between hour and minute / chapter and verse (Bible)
Examples At 4:01 p.m. the doors will be opened to the public.
You will find those words in Genesis 1: 14-17.
Use an APOSTROPHE
1. To show ownership (to form the possessive case of nouns)
Examples One boy owns some hats the boy’s hats
Two boys own some hats two boys’ hats
One man owns some hats the man’s hats
Two men own some hats the men’s hats
2. To show joint ownership with nouns
Example Nan and Ted own the same dogs Nan and Ted’s dogs
3. To show individual ownership with nouns
Example Nan and Ted each own different dogs Nan’s and Ted’s dogs
4. To show ownership with indefinite pronouns
Examples anybody's hats everybody's hats each's hats
NOTE: Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of the personal possessive pronoun its.
Example Do use an apostrophe with its to mean it is or it has.
It’s my dream to write a book on Inglish
5. To form the plural of letters, numbers, and signs, and of words referred to as words
Examples Cows’ are grazing in the field.
How many and’s are in the second paragraph?
Remember to cross all of the t’s.
Use PARENTHESES
1. To enclose interrupting elements that add information or identification
Examples
· The NRA (National Rifle Association) has a strong lobby in Washington.
· I walked right up to him (no one was with him at the time) and told him what we had decided.
2. To enclose figures or letters when used for enumeration within a sentence
Example
Each essay will be judged on the basis of (a) its length, (b) its artistic merit,
and (c) its originality.
Use a DASH
To set off parenthetical matter
Example
Harvey’s latest purchase – a condominium on the beach – pleases him greatly.
NOTE: UNLIKE PARENTHESES, WHICH MINIMIZE THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PARENTHETICAL MATERIAL, DASHES EMPHASIZE PARENTHETICAL MATERIAL.
Notice the different emphasis in each sentence.
The human mind is, as Luther said, a factory busy with making idols.
The human mind is (as Luther said) a factory busy with making idols.
The human mind is - as Luther said - a factory busy with making idols.
Use ITALICS (underlining)
1. For words, letters, and figures referred to as such
Examples The word unbreakable has three morphemes.
The most frequently used vowel is e.
2. For foreign, technical (including mathematical expressions), or unusual words and phrases.
Examples The short story began in media res.
An interrobang is a combination of a question mark and exclamation point.
The definition of cool constantly evolves as the word is used by different generations.
3. For titles of books, newspapers, magazines, journals, plays, movies, radio programs, TV programs, long musical works, long poems, works of art, names ships and airplanes
Examples F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby chronicles the 1920's in America.
Newsweek recently ran an article on killer bees.
Use QUOTATION MARKS
1. To enclose titles of minor works: articles, essays, poems, songs, chapters of books, short stories, episodes of radio/TV programs.
Examples The front page of newspaper sported an article titled “Trapped Couple Lived Thirteen Days on Cookies.”
Who wrote “The Star Spangled Banner”?
2. To enclose words used ironically or where the term so-called could be inserted.
Examples He's one of the “fiftysomething” crowd.
The five-year-old prepared a "gourmet" breakfast for his mother on Mother's Day.
3. To enclose a direct quotation: a person's exact words
Example He said, “You have won the lottery.”
NOTE: Do not use quotation marks to enclose indirect quotations.
Incorrect He said that “I had won the lottery.”
Correct He said that I had won the lottery.
NOTES FOR DIRECT QUOTATIONS:
1. Start the quotation with a capital letter.
2. Place commas and periods INSIDE the quotation marks.
3. Place semicolons and colons OUTSIDE the quotation marks.
4. Place question marks and exclamation marks INSIDE the quotation marks if the quotation itself is a question or an exclamation.
5. Place question marks and exclamation marks OUTSIDE the quotation marks if the quotation itself is NOT a question or exclamation.
USE SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS to enclose a quotation inside another quotation.
Example "Please stop saying, ‘I love you,’” he begged.
"I have just heard ‘Amazing Grace,’" she said.
If the quotation within another quotation is a question or an exclamation, place appropriate punctuation next to the item concerned.
Examples Question quotation inside statement quotation
He said, "You asked, 'Do you love me?'"
Statement quotation inside question quotation
He asked, "Did you say, 'I love you'?"
Question quotation inside question quotation
He asked, "Did you ask, 'Do you love me?'"
Exclamation quotation inside question quotation
or
Question quotation inside exclamation quotation
He asked, "Did you exclaim, 'I love you!'?"
He exclaimed, "I hated your asking, 'Do you love me?'!"
AFFIX
An affix is a bound morpheme1 that is joined before, after, or within a root2 or stem3.
1 A bound morpheme is a grammatical unit that never occurs by itself, but is always attached to some other morpheme. Example the ‘s’ in dogs.
2 carries the principle portion of meaning of the words in which it functions
3 A stem is the root or roots of a word, together with any derivational affixes, to which inflectional affixes are added.
We have basically nine types of affixes
1. Circumfix made up of two separate parts which surround and attach to a root.
2. Derivational one word is formed (derived) from another. Joyfulness
3. Infix inserted within a stem. bloomin
4. Inflectional expresses a grammatical contrast that is obligatory for its stem's (grammatical category), does not change the word class of its stem, produces a predictable, nonidiosyncratic change of meaning.
a. Aspect
b. Case
c. Modality
d. Number
e. Person
f. Tense
g. Voice
5. Prefix joined before a root or stem. Unselfish
6. Separable can be detached from its stem and located elsewhere in a construction.
7. Simulfix a change or replacement of vowels or consonants (usually vowels) which changes the meaning of a word. Eat ---Ate
8. Suffix attached to the end of a stem or root. Walked
9. Suprafix a suprasegmental is superimposed on one or more syllables of the root or stem, signalling a particular morphosyntactic operation (A morphosyntactic operation is an ordered, dynamic relation between one linguistic form and another) . `Produce, n. Pro’duce, v
Prefixes Roots Suffixes
ab - away vis, vid - to see -tion, -ion, -sion - n. condition
ad - to, toward ject - push -al - adj., relating to
con, com, co - with, together press- press -e - makes a noun or verb
de - down, from cis, cid - cut, kill -ive - adj., relating to
ex, e - out of, from pend, pens - hang -able, -ible - able to, can
in, im - in or not fac, fici, fec - make, do -ia - n. condition, disorder
micro - small lat- carry -ly - adverb
mono - one mit, mis- send, do -ology -study
multi - many nav, naut - sail, boat -ary, -ory - place
ob - to, toward ten,tend,tain - hold
pre,pro - before, near ped, pod, pus - foot
re - back, again cept, ceiv - take
rupt - break